European Union
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European Union
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| Motto: "In Varietate Concordia" (Latin) "United in Diversity" |
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| Anthem: "Ode to Joy" (instrumental)
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Location of the European Union
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European Union
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| Capital | Brussels (de facto)[1] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Largest cities | Paris and London[lower-alpha 1] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Official languages | <templatestyles src="Hlist/styles.css"></templatestyles> | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Official scripts[4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Demonym | European[6] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Type | Political and economic union | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Member states | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Neofunctionalist Staatenverbund | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | President of the European Commission | Jean-Claude Juncker | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | President of the European Council | Donald Tusk | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | President of the European Parliament | Antonio Tajani | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Legislature | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Formation[7] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Treaty of Rome | 1 January 1958 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Treaty of Maastricht | 1 November 1993 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Treaty of Lisbon | 1 December 2009 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Last polity admitted | 1 July 2013 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Area | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Total | 4,475,757 km2 1,728,099 sq mi |
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| • | Water (%) | 3.08 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Population | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | 2017 estimate | 511,805,088[8] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | 2013[lower-alpha 4] census | 505,163,008[8] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Density | 116.8/km2 306.5/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2018 estimate | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Total | $21.7 trillion[9] (2nd) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Per capita | $42,459[9] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2018 estimate | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Total | $18.4 trillion[9] (2nd) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Per capita | $35,939[10] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Gini (2016) |  30.8[11]medium |
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| HDI (2015) |  0.874[lower-alpha 5]very high |
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| Currency | Euro (EUR; €; Eurozone) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Time zone | (UTC to UTC+2) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| • | Summer (DST) | (UTC+1 to UTC+3) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (see also Summer Time in Europe) Note: with the exception of Madeira, the outermost regions observe different time zones not shown.[lower-alpha 6] |
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| Date format | dd/mm/yyyy (AD/CE) See also: Date and time notation in Europe |
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| Internet TLD | .eu[lower-alpha 7] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Website europa |
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The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. In 2018 it had an area of 4,475,757 km2 (1,728,099 sq mi) and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply to all member states. EU policies facilitate the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market,[13] enact new laws that member states must endorse, and implement common policies on trade,[14] agriculture,[15] fisheries and regional development.[16] The EU also increasingly implemented media and social control policies, including limited forms of political censorship restricting or banning mostly right-wing speech.[17][18] Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, benefiting employers but worsening an itinerant migrant problem.[19] A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The citizens of wealthier member states complained they lost purchasing power as a result, while poorer members complained their reduced monetary policy options have stagnated their economies.
The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original members of what came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The Communities and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state had previously left the EU or its predecessors, the United Kingdom announced it departure after a membership referendum in June 2016 and started negotiating its withdrawal. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship.[20] The latest major extension of the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.
The European Union provides more foreign aid than any other economic union.[21] Covering 7.3% of the world population,[22] the EU in 2017 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of 19.670 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 24.6% of global nominal GDP[23] and 16.5% when measured in terms of purchasing power parity.[24] Additionally, 27 out of 28 EU countries had a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Because of its global influence, the European Union visualizes itself as an emerging superpower.[25]
In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in what Euroskeptics considered a progressive political statement.</ref>[26]
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Contents
History
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Background
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A day will come when all nations on our continent will form a European brotherhood ... A day will come when we shall see ... the United States of America and the United States of Europe face to face, reaching out for each other across the seas. Victor Hugo, International Peace Congress, 1849.
During the centuries following the fall of Rome in 476, several European States viewed themselves as translatio imperii of the defunct Roman Empire: the Frankish Empire (481–843) and the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) were attempts to resurrect Rome in the West.[lower-alpha 8] The Russian Tsardom, and ultimately the Empire (1547–1917), declared Moscow to be Third Rome and inheritor of the Eastern tradition after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.[28] The gap between Greek East and Latin West had already been widened by the political scission of the Roman Empire in the 4th century and the Great Schism of 1054; and would be eventually widened again by the Iron Curtain (1945–91).[29] The Medieval Christendom[30][31] and political power of the Papacy[32][33] are also often cited as premisses to European integration and unity.
Pan-European political thought truly emerged during the 19th century, inspired by the liberal ideas of the French and American Revolutions after the demise of Napoléon's Empire (1804–15). In the decades following the outcomes of the Congress of Vienna, ideals of European unity flourished across the continent, especially in the writings of Wojciech Jastrzębowski,[34] Giuseppe Mazzini[35] or Theodore de Korwin Szymanowski.[36] The term United States of Europe (French: États-Unis d'Europe) was famously used at that time by Victor Hugo during a speech at the International Peace Congress held in Paris in 1849.[37]
During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent.[38] In 1920, advocating the creation of a European economic union, British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote that "a Free Trade Union should be established ... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union."[39] During the same decade, Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, one of the first to imagine of a modern political union of Europe, founded the Pan-Europa Movement.[40] His ideas influenced his contemporaries, among which then Prime Minister of France Aristide Briand. In 1929, the later gave a famous speech in favour of a European Union before the assembly of the League of Nations, precursor of the United Nations.[41]
Preliminary (1945–57)
After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the ultranationalism which had been problematic to the global elites.[42] In a speech delivered on 19 September 1946 at the University of Zürich, Switzerland, Winston Churchill postulated the emerging of a United States of Europe during the 20th century.[43] The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe, where Europe's future leaders would live and study together.[44] 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, which was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe."[45] The supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak.[46] These men and others are officially credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union.
Treaty of Rome (1957–92)
In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958.[46]
The EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members.[47][48]
During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities.[49][50] Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).[51]
In 1973, the Communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland, which later left the Communities in 1985, following a dispute over fishing rights), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.[52] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.[53] This was marked by a special international friendly football match at Wembley Stadium between two teams called "The Three" and "The Six" which finished 2-0 to "The Three".
Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain following in 1986.[54] In 1985, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.[55] In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the EEC[56] and the Single European Act was signed.
In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the Communities as part of a reunified Germany.[57] A close fiscal integration with the introduction of the euro was not matched by institutional oversight making things more troubling. Attempts to solve the problems and to make the EU more efficient and coherent had limited success.[58] With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.[58]
Maastricht Treaty (1992–2007)
The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993.[20][59] The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred as such before the treaty. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.
In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries. The euro currency became the second largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the Union.[60]
Lisbon Treaty (2007–present)
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In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. The same year, Slovenia adopted the euro,[60] followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011, by Latvia in 2014, and by Lithuania in 2015.
On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.[61][62]
In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe."[63][64] In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.[65]
From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the Eurozone countries, increasing migration from the Middle East, and the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU.[66] A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held on 23 June 2016, with 51.9% of participants voting to leave.[67] This is referred to in common parlance throughout Europe as Brexit, a portmanteau of "Britain" and "exit". The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017 initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU, committing the UK to leave the EU on 29 March 2019.[68]
Structural evolution
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The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union, in terms of structural development driven by international treaties:
| Signed In force Document |
1948 1948 Brussels Treaty |
1951 1952 Paris Treaty |
1954 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty |
1957 1958 Rome treaties |
1965 1967 Merger Treaty |
1975 N/A European Council conclusion |
1985 1985 Schengen Treaty |
1986 1987 Single European Act |
1992 1993 Maastricht Treaty |
1997 1999 Amsterdam Treaty |
2001 2003 Nice Treaty |
2007 2009 Lisbon Treaty |
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| Three pillars of the European Union: | |||||||||||||||||||||
| European Communities: | |||||||||||||||||||||
| European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) | |||||||||||||||||||||
| European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) | Treaty expired in 2002 | European Union (EU) | |||||||||||||||||||
| European Economic Community (EEC) | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Schengen Rules | European Community (EC) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| TREVI | Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC) | |||||||||||||||||||||
| European Political Cooperation (EPC) | Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Unconsolidated bodies | Western European Union (WEU) | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Treaty terminated in 2011 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Geography
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The EU's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi).[lower-alpha 9] The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level.[69] The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.[70]
The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long.
Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North-East Europe) to tropical (French Guiana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate (North-Western Europe and Central Europe), a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe).[71]
The EU's population is highly urbanised, with some 75% of inhabitants living in urban areas as of 2006. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux.[72]
Environment
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In 1957, when the EEC was founded, it had no environmental policy.[73] Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.[74] According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.[75]
European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.[76] Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.[77] In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.[75]
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Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme,[78] which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.[79] EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.[75]
Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20% of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.[80] The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy.[81] The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city.
Demographics
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Population
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As of 1 January 2016, the population of the European Union is about 510.1 million people (6.9% of the world population).[8][82] In 2015, 5.1 million children were born in the EU-28, corresponding to a birth rate of 10 per 1,000, which is 8 births below the world average.[83] For comparison, the EU-28 birth rate had stood at 10.6 in 2000, 12.8 in 1985 and 16.3 in 1970.[84] Its population growth rate was positive at an estimated 0.23% in 2016.[85]
In 2010, 47.3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).[86]
Urbanisation
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The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over one million, including the three megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of London,[87] Paris,[88] and the Rhine-Ruhr.[89] In addition to large agglomerations, the EU also includes several densely populated polycentric urbanised regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass a large metropolis. The largest of these polycentric metropolis include Rhine-Ruhr with approximately 11.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad with approx. 8.2 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine-Main with approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish Diamond with approx. 5.5 million (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.), and Greater Copenhagen with approx. 4 million (Copenhagen, Malmö).[90]
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Largest population centres of European Union Larger Urban Zones, according to Eurostat[91][92] |
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| Rank | City name | State | Pop. | ||||||
 London |
1 |  London |
United Kingdom | 11,905,500 |  Madrid |
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| 2 |  Paris |
France | 11,532,409 | ||||||
| 3 |  Madrid |
Spain | 5,804,829 | ||||||
| 4 |  Berlin |
Germany | 4,971,331 | ||||||
| 5 |  Barcelona |
Spain | 4,440,629 | ||||||
| 6 |  Athens |
Greece | 4,013,368 | ||||||
| 7 |  Rome |
Italy | 3,457,690 | ||||||
| 8 |  Hamburg |
Germany | 3,134,620 | ||||||
| 9 |  Milan |
Italy | 3,076,643 | ||||||
| 10 |  Katowice |
Poland | 2,710,397 | ||||||
Languages
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| Language | Native speakers | Total |
|---|---|---|
| English | 13% | 51% |
| German | 18% | 32% |
| French | 13% | 26% |
| Italian | 12% | 16% |
| Spanish | 8% | 15% |
| Polish | 8% | 9% |
| Romanian | 5% | 5% |
| Dutch | 4% | 5% |
| Greek | 3% | 4% |
| Hungarian | 3% | 3% |
| Portuguese | 2% | 3% |
| Czech | 2% | 3% |
| Swedish | 2% | 3% |
| Bulgarian | 2% | 2% |
| Slovak | 1% | 2% |
| Danish | 1% | 1% |
| Finnish | 1% | 1% |
| Lithuanian | 1% | 1% |
| Croatian | 1% | 1% |
| Slovenian | <1% | <1% |
| Estonian | <1% | <1% |
| Irish | <1% | <1% |
| Latvian | <1% | <1% |
| Maltese | <1% | <1% |
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Survey 2012.[93] |
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The European Union has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.[96][97][98]
Due to the high number of official idioms, most of the institutions use only a handful of working languages.[99] The European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural languages : English, French, and German. Similarly, the European Court of Justice uses French as the working language,[100][101] while the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English.[102][103]
Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.[lower-alpha 10][104] English is the most widely spoken language in the EU, being understood by 51% of the EU population when counting both native and non-native speakers.[105] German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (spoken by 16% of the EU population.) More than a half (56%) of EU citizens is able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.[106]
Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, represented by the Balto-Slavic,[lower-alpha 11] the Italic,[lower-alpha 12] the Germanic,[lower-alpha 13] the Hellenic,[lower-alpha 14] and the Celtic[lower-alpha 15] branches. Some EU languages however, namely Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian (all three Uralic), Basque (Vasconic[lower-alpha 16]) and Maltese (Semitic) do not belong to Indo-European languages.[107] The three official alphabets of the European Union (Cyrillic, Latin, and modern Greek), all derive from the Archaic Greek scripts.[4][108]
Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.[107] Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh are not recognised official languages of the European Union but have semi-official status: official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages.[109][110] The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.[111]
Religion
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| Affiliation | % of E.U. population | |
|---|---|---|
| Christian | 71.6 |
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| Catholic | 45.3 |
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| Protestant | 11.1 |
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| Eastern Orthodox | 9.6 |
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| Other Christian | 5.6 |
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| Muslim | 1.8 |
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| Other faiths | 2.6 |
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| Irreligious | 24 |
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| Non-believer/Agnostic | 13.6 |
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| Atheist | 10.4 |
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The EU has no formal connection to any religion. The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union[112] recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations" as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations".[113]
The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".[113] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or God, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.[114]
Christians in the European Union are divided among members of Catholicism (both Roman and Eastern Rite), numerous Protestant denominations (Anglicans, Lutherans, and Reformed forming the bulk of this category), and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million,[115] and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.[116] The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population.
According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2015 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 71.6% of the EU population. Catholics are the largest Christian group, accounting for 45.3% of the EU population, while Protestants make up 11.1%, Eastern Orthodox make up 9.6%, and other Christians make up 5.6%.[5]
Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52% of EU citizens believed in a God, 27% in "some sort of spirit or life force", and 18% had no form of belief.[117] Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years.[118] The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16%) and the Czech Republic (19%).[117] The most religious countries were Malta (95%, predominantly Roman Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90% of citizens professing a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale".[117]
Education and science
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Basic education is an area where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years, it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life.[119]
There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.[120][121] Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.[122] EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.[123]
Health care
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Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care, Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". The European Commission's Directorate-General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.[124][125][126]
All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries.[127] A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.[128][129][130]
Politics
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The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms.[131] Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).[132]
Member states
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Through successive enlargements, the European Union has grown from the six founding states (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) to the current 28. Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty".[133][134]
To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.[135] No member state has yet left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.[136] The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50, providing for a member to leave the EU.[137]
There are six countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia,[lower-alpha 17] Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey,[138] though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013.[139] Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates,[138] with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application.
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[140][141] The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.[142] The following 28 sovereign states (of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe) constitute the European Union:[143]
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| Symbol | Flag | State | Capital | Code | Accession | Population (2017)[8] |
Area (km2) | Pop. density (per km²) |
MEPs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Austria | Vienna | AT | 1 January 1995 | 8,772,865 | 83,855 | 104.62 | 18 |
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Belgium | Brussels | BE | Founder | 11,351,727 | 30,528 | 371.85 | 21 |
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Bulgaria | Sofia | BG | 1 January 2007 | 7,101,859 | 110,994 | 63.98 | 17 |
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Croatia | Zagreb | HR | 1 July 2013 | 4,154,213 | 56,594 | 73.4 | 11 |
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Cyprus | Nicosia | CY | 1 May 2004 | 854,802 | 9,251 | 92.4 | 6 |
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Czech Republic | Prague | CZ | 1 May 2004 | 10,578,820 | 78,866 | 134.14 | 21 |
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Denmark | Copenhagen | DK | 1 January 1973 | 5,748,769 | 43,075 | 133.46 | 13 |
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Estonia | Tallinn | EE | 1 May 2004 | 1,315,635 | 45,227 | 29.09 | 6 |
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Finland | Helsinki | FI | 1 January 1995 | 5,503,297 | 338,424 | 16.26 | 13 |
 |
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France | Paris | FR | Founder | 66,989,083 | 640,679 | 104.56 | 74 |
 |
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Germany | Berlin | DE | Founder[lower-alpha 18] | 82,521,653 | 357,021 | 231.14 | 96 |
 |
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Greece | Athens | GR | 1 January 1981 | 10,768,193 | 131,990 | 81.58 | 21 |
 |
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Hungary | Budapest | HU | 1 May 2004 | 9,797,561 | 93,030 | 105.32 | 21 |
 |
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Ireland | Dublin | IE | 1 January 1973 | 4,784,383 | 70,273 | 68.08 | 11 |
 |
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Italy | Rome | IT | Founder | 60,589,445 | 301,338 | 201.07 | 73 |
 |
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Latvia | Riga | LV | 1 May 2004 | 1,950,116 | 64,589 | 30.19 | 8 |
 |
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Lithuania | Vilnius | LT | 1 May 2004 | 2,847,904 | 65,200 | 43.68 | 11 |
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Luxembourg | Luxembourg City | LU | Founder | 590,667 | 2,586 | 228.41 | 6 |
 |
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Malta | Valletta | MT | 1 May 2004 | 460,297 | 316 | 1,456.64 | 6 |
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Netherlands | Amsterdam | NL | Founder | 17,081,507 | 41,543 | 411.18 | 26 |
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Poland | Warsaw | PL | 1 May 2004 | 37,972,964 | 312,685 | 121.44 | 51 |
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Portugal | Lisbon | PT | 1 January 1986 | 10,309,573 | 92,390 | 111.59 | 21 |
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Romania | Bucharest | RO | 1 January 2007 | 19,644,350 | 238,391 | 82.4 | 32 |
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Slovakia | Bratislava | SK | 1 May 2004 | 5,435,343 | 49,035 | 110.85 | 13 |
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Slovenia | Ljubljana | SI | 1 May 2004 | 2,065,895 | 20,273 | 101.9 | 8 |
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Spain | Madrid | ES | 1 January 1986 | 46,528,024 | 504,030 | 92.31 | 54 |
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Sweden | Stockholm | SE | 1 January 1995 | 9,995,153 | 449,964 | 22.21 | 20 |
 |
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United Kingdom | London | GB | 1 January 1973 | 65,808,573 | 243,610 | 270.14 | 73 |
| Totals: | 27 countries | 445,714,098 | 4,232,147 | 105.31 | 678 |
Institutions
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The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making.[144][145]
EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. The EU's seven principal decision making bodies—known as the Institutions of the European Union are:
- the European Council, which sets the general political directions and priorities of the Union by gathering together its member states' heads of state/government (elected chief executives). The conclusions of its summits (held at least quarterly) are adopted by consensus.
- the European Commission, the "Guardian of the Treaties" consists of an executive cabinet of public officials, led by an indirectly elected President. This College of Commissioners manages and directs the Commission's permanent civil service. It turns the consensus objectives of the European Council into legislative proposals.
- the Council of the European Union is an executive meeting of ministers of member states governments' departments, which meets to amend, approve or reject proposed legislation from the Commission. It forms the upper house of the EU's essentially bicameral legislature. Its approval is required for any proposal to enter into law.
- the European Parliament consists of 751 directly elected representatives, forming the EU's lower house of its bicameral legislature. It shares with the Council of the EU equal legislative powers to amend, approve or reject Commission proposals for most areas of EU legislation. Its powers are limited in areas where member states' view sovereignty to be of primary concern (i.e. defence). It elects the Commission's President, must approve the College of Commissioners, and may vote to remove them collectively from office.
- the Court of Justice of the European Union ensures the uniform application of EU law and resolves disputes between EU institutions and member states, and against EU institutions on behalf of individuals.
- the European Central Bank is responsible for monetary stability within member states.
- the European Court of Auditors investigates the proper management of finances within both the EU entities and EU funding provided to its member states. As well as providing oversight and advice, it can refer unresolved issues to the European Court of Justice to arbitrate on any alleged irregularities.
Relation to the Council of Europe
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Beyond the EU institutions is the Council of Europe (CoE) which is a wider international organisation with 47 member states whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. Its legislative principles are promulgated by the European Convention on Human Rights and its judicial agent is the European Court of Human Rights. These ethical institutions are distinct from the legislative European Union institutions mentioned above, although ECHR decisions are enforcable upon the EU institutions and upon the several judiciaries of sovereign member states of the EU[146]
The Venice Commission formally The European Commission for Democracy through Law provides advice regarding constitutional matters in order to improve functioning of democratic institutions and the protection of human rights in member states of the Council of Europe
Relations between the EU and its electorate
Apart from the national political structures within member states and the directly elected European Parliament the EU also encourages citizen participation via development projects such as CORDIS (the EU Community Research and Development Information Service) and the ERASMUS (The European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students).
Lobbying at EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process[147]
The Five Presidents (in 2017) were led by:
- the President of the European Commission, Jean-Claude Juncker, indirectly elected by EU citizens via the European Parliament for a 5-year renewable term following European Parliamentary elections, together with,
- the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk, who chairs the gatherings of the EU's 28 national heads of government/state and is elected by them for a 2.5 year once renewable term,
- Eurogroup President, Mário Centeno, who chairs informal meetings of finance ministers from EU member states that use the euro as their currency, and is elected from amongst them, by them, for a 2.5 year renewable term,
- the European Central Bank President, Mario Draghi, elected de facto by the European Council members who represent eurozone states, for an eight-year non-renewable term,
- the European Parliament President, Antonio Tajani, elected from amongst the 751 directly elected Members of the European Parliament, by them, for a 2.5 year renewable term.
By working together, they seek provide a forward policy consideration nucleus for the various European "think-tanks" which discuss various possible future social and economic scenarios that will eventually require ratification by the EU electorate.[148]
Constitutional nature
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The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated. It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states. However, since the mid-1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation, such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual[149] and majority voting in the decision-making process of the general level of government,[150] without becoming a federation per se. Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation, being an instance of neither political structure.[151] For this reason, the organisation is termed sui generis (incomparable, one of a kind),[152] although some argue that this designation is no longer valid.[153][154]
The organisation has traditionally used the terms "Community" and later "Union" to describe itself. The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law (where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations) and international law (where the subjects include sovereign states and international organisations). They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions.[153] Especially in terms of the European tradition, the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law; so the EU cannot be called a federation — at least, not without qualification. It is, however, described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states, a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state.[155] The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund, an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund (confederation of states) and the Bundesstaat (federal state), consistent with this concept.[156] This may be a long-lived political form. Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state, but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system.[157]
Governance
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The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.
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European Parliament
The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU's legislature. The 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.[159] The European Union council, the Council of Ministers, and the Commission fulfilled the duties as the executive for the parliament. [21]
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. The European Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament (currently Antonio Tajani) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.[160]
European Council
The European Council gives political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council (currently Donald Tusk), the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) also takes part in its meetings. It has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".[161] It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.
The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).[162]
Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU,[163] driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them.
The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg.
Council of the European Union
The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council"[164] and the "Council of Ministers", its former title)[165] forms one half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.[166] In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
European Commission
The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.
One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission (currently Jean-Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is ex-officio a Vice-President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council.[167] The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.
Budget
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The 2011 EU budget (€141.9 bn)[168]
The EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,[169] representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.[170]
In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45% of the total budget.[171] Next comes "agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.[171] "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes up around 11%.[171] "Administration" accounts for around 6%.[171] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice" bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% respectively.[171]
The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".[172] The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.[173] The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission's handling of the budget.
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007[when?] and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level.[174][175] In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.[176] The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was €1,863 million.[177]
Competences
EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.[178]
That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area.
The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories:
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Legal system
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The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.[179] These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation[lower-alpha 19] which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.[lower-alpha 20] The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.[180]
Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.[lower-alpha 21]
Courts of Justice
The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court[181]
The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states.[183] The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,[184] and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.[185] Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.[186]
Fundamental rights
The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."[187]
In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states."[188] The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.[189]
Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership,[lower-alpha 22] previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state[lower-alpha 23] nor had the competence to accede.[lower-alpha 24] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it.
Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe. The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.[190]
Acts
The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,[lower-alpha 25] and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.[lower-alpha 19] Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.[lower-alpha 26] When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.
Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.[191]
Area of freedom, security and justice
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Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom, security and justice, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces,[192] Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,[193] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.[194] The EU also operates the Schengen Information System[19] which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime.
Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,[195] family law,[196] asylum law,[197] and criminal justice.[198] Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.[lower-alpha 27] In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.[lower-alpha 28] By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.[lower-alpha 29]
Foreign relations
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Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU's common commercial policy.[199] Steps for a more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.[200]
The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.[201] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.[202]
The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department[203] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.[204] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.[205]
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.[206]:762 This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[207]
Defence
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The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.[208] 22 EU members are members of NATO[209] while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.[210] The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.[211]
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion, the sixth largest.[212] Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity.[213] Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.
Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.[214]
EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia.[215] EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff.[216] Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders. It aims to detect and limit or stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration. In 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management. In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.[217]
While the EU's collective defence abilities are theoretically large, they have been weakened by decades of limited and inefficient spending, and by a social evolution toward pacifism.
Humanitarian aid
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The European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to €874 million, 51% of the budget went to Africa and 20% to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20% to the Middle East and Mediterranean.[220]
Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70%) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30%).[221] The EU's external action financing is divided into 'geographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.[221] The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, €16.9 billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95% of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.[221] The European Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 bn, 2008–2013) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7% target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.[221]
In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4% and five had met or exceeded the 0.7% target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.[222]
Economy
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The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 511 million citizens. In 2016, the EU had a combined GDP of $20 trillion international dollars, a 17% share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP).[224] As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU member states own the estimated second largest after the United States (33%) net wealth in the world, equal to 25% (US$72 trillion) of the $280 trillion global wealth.[225]
19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone, which uses the Euro as a single currency. The currency union represents 340 million EU citizens.[226] The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.[227][228][229]
Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 have their headquarters in the EU.[230] In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9%[231] while inflation was at 2.2%, and the current account balance at −0.9% of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around €24,000(US$30,000)[232] in 2015, which was about 70% of that in the United States.[233]
There is a significant variance for Nominal GDP per capita within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (276 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2016, from 14%(Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average(€29,200) to 935%(Inner London - West, UK), or from €4,100 to €207,300.[234]
Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe.[235][236] Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.[237]
Internal market
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Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU,[226] and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.[140] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.[238]
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.[239] Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.
The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.[240]
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60–70% of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.[241] According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.
Monetary union
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The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union. The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.
In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining. In 2002, the currency was fully put into place, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 19 countries.[242][lower-alpha 30]
The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB).[243] The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states.[244]
The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.[245]
To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level.
Energy
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In 2006, the EU-27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).[246] Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported.[246] In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the EU.[247]
The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.[248]
The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia[249] and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.[248]
In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82% of their oil, 57% of their natural gas[250] and 97.48% of their uranium[247] demands. There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce.[251]
Infrastructure
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The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge. In 2010 the estimated network covers: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.[252][253]
Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), an initiative to greatly enhance safety, increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross-border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitised mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems.
The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.[254] The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada.[255]
The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.[256]
Agriculture
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The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community.[257] The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers.[lower-alpha 32] It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and as of 2013[update] accounts for around 34%.[258][not in citation given]
The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction. These were intervention stores of products bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. To dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their products outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers outside Europe, especially those in the developing world.[259] Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living.[259]
Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially, these reforms included the introduction of set-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels.[257] One of these reforms entailed the modification of the EU's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.[260]
Competition
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The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.[lower-alpha 33] The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.[261][not in citation given]
The Competition Commissioner, currently Margrethe Vestager, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations.[262][not in citation given] For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority.[263] Another high-profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.[264]
Culture
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Contemporary European culture is the heir of several historical periods, from Biblical Israel[265][266], Indo-European culture[267][268], the Graeco-Roman world[269] and Christianity,[270][271] to the modern phenomena of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.[272][273]
Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.[274] Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven-year programme,[274] the European Cultural Month event,[275] and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra.[276] The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city.[277]
Sport
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Association football is by far the most popular sport in the European Union by the number of registered players. The other sports with the most participants in clubs are tennis, swimming, athletics, golf, gymnastics, equestrian sports, handball, volleyball and sailing.[278]
Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. However, there are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.[279]
The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity.[280] This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.[281] The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.[282]
Symbols
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The flag of the Union consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. The blue represents the West, while the number and position of the stars represent completeness and unity, respectively.[283] Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present Union, in 1986.
United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils.[284] Since 1985, the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.[285]
Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.[286]
Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe"),[287][288][289] has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification.[290] Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people.[291]
Benedict of Nursia (c. 2 March 480 – 543 or 547 AD) is a patron saint of Europe,[292] venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Catholic Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion and Old Catholic Churches.[293] Pope Benedict XVI said that he "exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture" and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the Roman empire.[294] In 1997, Polish-born Pope John Paul II canonised Poland's 14th-century monarch Jadwiga as Saint Hedwig, the patron saint of queens and of European unification[295] There are five other recognised patron saints of Europe, declared so by Pope John Paul II between 1980 and1999 : Cyril and Methodius, Saint Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena and Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross.[296]
Media
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Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights.[297]:1 Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".[298]
The vast majority of media in the European Union are national-oriented. However, some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe.[299] ARTE is a public Franco-German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80% of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel's European partners.[300]
The MEDIA Programme of the European Union intends to support the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.[301]
Criticism
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Often seen as a key player in a putative post-World War II New World Order, through an alleged Deep State or Shadow Party, the EU has been called an SJW converging organization for a historically enduring trend of imposing increasingly progressive policies on its members, including socially liberal attitudes towards accepting mostly Muslim migrants fleeing the Third World, and feminist and social minority rights that override more traditional ways.[302]
See also
- Outline of the European Union
- List of country groupings
- List of multilateral free-trade agreements
- New World Order (conspiracy theory)
- Globalism
- Globalization
Notes
- ↑ London and Paris are the largest cities in the European Union by urban population.[2]
- ↑ The 24 languages are equally official and accepted as working languages. However, only three of them – English, French and German – have the higher status of procedural languages and are used in the day-to-day workings of the European institutions.[3]
- ↑ Currently undergoing exit procedures known as Brexit.
- ↑ Last year before break in time series.
- ↑ Calculated using UNDP data for the member states with weighted population.[12]
- ↑ Martinique, Guadeloupe (UTC−4); French Guiana (UTC−3); Azores (UTC−1 / UTC); Mayotte (UTC+3); and La Réunion (UTC+4); which, other than the Azores, do not observe DST.
- ↑ .eu is representative of the whole of the EU; member states also have their own TLDs.
- ↑ Kikuchi Yoshio (菊池良生) of Meiji University suggested that the notion of Holy Roman Empire as a federal political entity influenced the later structural ideas of the European Union.[27]
- ↑ This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states which are part of the European Union and excludes the European territories of member states which are not part of the Union. For more information see Special member state territories and the European Union.
- ↑ See Articles 165 and 166 (ex Articles 149 and 150) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu
- ↑ Slavic: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Polish, Slovak and Slovenian. Baltic: Latvian and Lithuanian.
- ↑ French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish.
- ↑ Danish, Dutch, English, German and Swedish.
- ↑ Greek
- ↑ Irish
- ↑ Vasconic is still a putative family whose Basque would be the only surviving language. Basque is not an official language of the European Union but has a semi-official status.
- ↑ Referred to by the EU as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia".
- ↑ On 3 October 1990, the constituent states of the former German Democratic Republic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, automatically becoming part of the EU.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 See Article 288 (ex Article 249 TEC) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu
- ↑ According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's decision in Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, Eur-Lex (European Court of Justice 1963). See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.
- ↑ According to the principle of Supremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64, Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also: Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2) [1991] 1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision of 22 October 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) and Frontini v. Ministero delle Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.
- ↑ It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria, Assembly.coe.int. This is a political and not a legal requirement for membership. Archived 26 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of the Convention), and even now only states may become member of the Council of Europe (Article 4 of the Statute of the Council of Europe).
- ↑ Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French), ruled that the European Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.
- ↑ See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze [1973] ECR 981.
- ↑ To do otherwise would require the drafting of legislation which would have to cope with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the now 28 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115
- ↑ See Articles 157 (ex Article 141) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu
- ↑ See Article 2(7) of the Amsterdam Treaty on eur-lex.europa.eu Archived 17 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19 July 2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303, 2 December 2000, p. 16–22).
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Although almost all uranium is imported, nuclear power is considered primary energy produced in the EU.
- ↑ Article 39 (ex Article 33) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu
- ↑ Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome
References
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Population on 1 January by age groups and sex - functional urban areas, Eurostat. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ The New Oxford American Dictionary, Second Edn., Erin McKean (editor), 2051 pages, May 2005, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-517077-6.
- ↑ Current Article 1 of the Treaty on European Union reads:"The Union shall be founded on the present Treaty and on the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Those two Treaties shall have the same legal value. The Union shall replace and succeed the European Community".
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. - ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ (Mar 7, 2001) https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1325398/Euro-court-outlaws-criticism-of-EU.html
- ↑ (Jun 3, 2016) https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/8189/social-media-censorship | (Apr 25, 2013) https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/3684/eu-propaganda
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- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Craig & De Burca 2011, p. 15.
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- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ John Maynard Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920, p. 265-66.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Merging the executives CVCE.eu
- ↑ Discover the former Presidents: The Rey Commission, Europa (web portal). Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Piris 2010, p. 448.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds)(2012) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, Virginia
- ↑ Knill, C. and Liefferink, D.(2012) The establishment of EU environmental policy, In: Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, Virginia
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 Institute for European Environmental Policy (2012) Manual of European Environmental Policy, Earthscan, London.
- ↑ Knill, C. and Liefferink, D.(2012) The establishment of EU environmental policy, In: Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA.
- ↑ Johnson, S.P. and Corcelle, G. (1989) The Environmental Policy of the European Communities, Graham & Trotman, London
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Benson, D. and Adelle, C. (2012) European Union environmental policy after the Lisbon Treaty, In: Jordan, A.J. and Adelle, C. (eds) Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics (3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% are born abroad Archived 12 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Eurostat, Katya VASILEVA, 34/2011.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Total population in Urban Audit cities, Larger Urban Zones - Eurostat
- ↑ CityProfiles - Eurostat
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ europarltv, official webtv of the European Parliament, is also available in all EU languages [1]
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 113.0 113.1 Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Jewish population figures may be unreliable. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 117.0 117.1 117.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.; Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ According to P.C. Schmitter, ‘Comparative Politics: Its Past, Present and Future’ (2016), 1 Chinese Political Science Review, 397, at 410, "European Union is the most complex polity in the world".
- ↑ These legislative instruments are dealt with in more detail below.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.
- ↑ 138.0 138.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 140.0 140.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Court of Justice of the European Union, Judgement of 5 February 1963 in Case 26/62, 'Van Gend en Loos', European Court Reports 1963, p. 1.
- ↑ Single European Act, Article 100a, Approximation of Laws.
- ↑ For example, David Marquand says it is 'less than a federation but more than a confederation'; Brigid Laffan and Kimmo Kiljunen both see it residing 'between a confederation and a federation'; Thomas Hueglin and Alan Fenna locate it 'somewhere between federation and confederation'; and Kalypso Nicolaidis argues 'it is more than a confederation of sovereign states; ... (however, it) should not become a federal state'.
Michael Burgess enlarges: the EU 'is not a federation but it is also more than a confederation understood in the classical sense. It exists, then, in a kind of conceptual limbo, a twilight zone ... which has no name'.
Paul Magnette illuminates the nature of the perceived 'in-betweenness': 'Since the seventeenth century, legal theorists have repeated that only two forms of union between states are possible: either the confederation, born of an international treaty concluded between sovereign states, where all decisions are unanimously adopted by state representatives; or the federal state, established by a constitution, where the law voted on by a bicameral parliament applies directly to the citizens. Tertium non datur. There is no third way ... In these, classic, political terms, the European Union is, strictly speaking, inconceivable'.
Burgess, Michael (2000) Federalism and European Union: The Building of Europe 1950–2000, Routledge, London, pp. 41–2. Hueglin, Thomas and Fenna, Alan (2006) Comparative Federalism: A Systematic Inquiry, Broadview, Peterborough, p. 13. Kiljunen, Kimmo (2004) The European Constitution in the Making, Centre for European Policy Studies, Brussels, p. 22. Laffan, Brigid (2002) The Future of Europe Debate, Institute of European Affairs, Dublin, p. 10. Magnette, Paul (2005) What Is the European Union? Nature and Prospects, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp. 4–5, 190. Marquand, David (2006) 'Federalism and the British: Anatomy of a Neurosis', in Political Quarterly, Vol. 77, No. 2, p. 175. Nicolaidis, Kalypso (2004) 'We, the Peoples of Europe ...', in Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 6, pp. 101–2. - ↑ Jacques Delors, the President of the European Commission upon entry into force of the Single European Act, which introduced the widespread use of majority voting to complete the single market, saw it as having at that stage become an 'Unidentified Political Object'. Speech at the People's University, Lille, 8 March 1987.
- ↑ 153.0 153.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ For the derivation of this concept, see the Introduction of the entry on Federalism.
Law, John (2013) "How Can We Define Federalism?". Perspectives on Federalism, Vol. 5, No. 3, p. E104. - ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title III: Provisions on the Institutions
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ With US or against US?: European trends in American perspective Parsons, Jabko. European Union Studies Association, p.146:
Fourth, the European Council acts a "collective head of state" for the EU. - ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ The Latin word consilium is occasionally used when a single identifier is required, as on the Council Web site.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found..
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Treaty on European Union: Article 17:7
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 171.0 171.1 171.2 171.3 171.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Article 287 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (ex Article 248 TEC).
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.>
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.>
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Its examples are the ratifications of United Nations Convention against Corruption and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by EU. And Article 47 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Article 256(1) (ex article 225(1)) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu
- ↑ Article 2, Treaty on European Union (consolidated 1 December 2009)
- ↑ Case 11/70, Internationale Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr und Vorratstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel; Article 6(2) of the Maastricht Treaty (as amended).
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Article 21 of the Treaty on European Union (as inserted by the Treaty of Lisbon), on eur-lex.europa.eu
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Rettman, Andrew (23 October 2009) EU states envisage new foreign policy giant, EU Observer
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Wilkinson 2007, p. 100.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Statement of the Presidency of the Permanent Council of the WEU – on behalf of the High Contracting Parties to the Modified Brussels Treaty – Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom – Western European Union 31 March 2010.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ "Britain and France to work together" by Catherine Field. 4 November 2010. nzherald.co.nz. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Britain spent more than US$69 billion on defence last year, placing it third in the world after the United States and China, while France spent US$67.31 billion, the fourth largest. Together, Britain and France account for 45 per cent of Europe's defence budget, 50 per cent of its military capacity and 70 per cent of all spending in military research and development. Copyright 2010, APN Holdings NZ Limited.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 221.0 221.1 221.2 221.3 Mikaela Gavas 2010. Financing European development cooperation: the Financial Perspectives 2014–2020. Archived 16 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine London: Overseas Development Institute
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- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 226.0 226.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Number of companies data taken from the "Pick a country" box.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8700651/1-28022018-BP-EN/15f5fd90-ce8b-4927-9a3b-07dc255dc42a
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 246.0 246.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 247.0 247.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Nuclear energy and renewable energy are treated differently from oil, gas, and coal in this respect. - ↑ 248.0 248.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ K. Bochmann, L'idée d'Europe jusqu'au XXe siècle (in Le concept de l'Europe dans le processus de la CSCE (1990) by Christiane Villain-Gandossi), quoted in Jan Berting, Europe: A Heritage, a Challenge, a Promise (2006, p.52)
- ↑ Norman Davies, Europe: A History (2010, p.15)
- ↑ 274.0 274.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Cases C-403/08 and C-429/08, Opinion of Advocate General Kokott, para 207
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- ↑ Simons 2002, p. 110.
- ↑ Emblemes Archived 19 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Demey 2007, p. 387.
- ↑ Riché, Preface xviii, Pierre Riché reflects: "[H]e enjoyed an exceptional destiny, and by the length of his reign, by his conquests, legislation and legendary stature, he also profoundly marked the history of Western Europe."
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Benedict XVI, "Saint Benedict of Norcia" Homily given to a general audience at St Peter's Square on Wednesday, 9 April 2008 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Johan Fornäs, Signifying Europe (2012), p. 255f.
- ↑ Maria Poptcheva, Press freedom in the EU Legal framework and challenges, EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service, Briefing April 2015
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- ↑ (Jun 2, 2016) http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/ap/article-3621458/Poland-downplays-EU-criticism-merely-opinion.html
Sources
- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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Further reading
- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. The E.U.'s foreign-policy mechanisms and foreign relations, including with its neighbours.
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- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. excerpt and text search
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- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. excerpt and text search
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- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
External links
Official:
- EUROPA—official web portal
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Overviews and data:
- Eurostat—European Union Statistics Explained
- Datasets related to the EU on CKAN
- CIA World Factbook: European Union entry at The World Factbook
- British Pathé—Online newsreel archive of the 20th century
- Search EU Financial Sanctions List
- The European Union: Questions and Answers Congressional Research Service
- Works by European Union at Project Gutenberg
- Lua error in Module:Internet_Archive at line 573: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
News and interviews:
- Der Spiegel interview with Helmut Schmidt and Valery Giscard d'Estaing
- Documents and clippings about European Union in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
Educational resources:
- European Studies Hub—interactive learning tools and resources to help students and researchers better understand and engage with the European Union and its politics.
| Awards and achievements | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize 2012 |
Succeeded by Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons |
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| G8 members | |
|---|---|
| Representative |
|
| G8+5 | |
| See also | |
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